Realism
Realism: states are self-interested, world is anarchic — power = security
Realism
The dominant IR theory — states pursue power and security above all
No world government → states must fend for themselves. Alliances are temporary convenience. War is always possible. Explains arms races and balance-of-power politics.
Liberal Internationalism
Liberalism: cooperation, institutions, democracy reduce conflict
Liberal Internationalism
States can cooperate — institutions and norms genuinely matter
Democratic Peace Theory: democracies rarely fight each other. International institutions (UN, WTO) enable cooperation. Economic interdependence raises cost of war.
Soft vs Hard Power
Soft power = persuasion and attraction. Hard power = coercion.
Soft vs Hard Power
Joseph Nye's distinction between two kinds of international influence
Hard power: military force and economic sanctions. Soft power: cultural attraction, diplomacy, values (Hollywood, universities, brands). Smart power combines both strategically.
NATO
NATO Article 5: attack one member = attack all — collective defense
NATO
The core commitment of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
32 members. Article 5 has been invoked once — after 9/11. Deterrence through collective security. Expansion eastward since Cold War has been a major source of geopolitical tension.
Constructivism
Constructivism: state identity and interests are socially constructed — not fixed
Constructivism
A third IR theory — ideas and identity shape behavior as much as power
States' interests aren't fixed by material factors — they're shaped by ideas, norms, and identities. Anarchy means what states make of it (Wendt). Explains norm changes like abolition of slavery and human rights regimes.
Balance of Power
Balance of power: states form alliances to prevent any one state from dominating — key realist concept
Balance of Power
Why states form alliances — to prevent hegemony
Core realist mechanism. When one state grows too powerful, others balance against it through internal balancing (build up military) or external balancing (form alliances). Bandwagoning: weaker states join the rising power instead. Polarity: unipolar (one hegemon, post-Cold War), bipolar (Cold War), multipolar (19th century Europe).
International Organizations
International organizations: IGOs (UN, WTO) create rules and forums. Cannot enforce without state consent.
International Organizations
What international organizations can and cannot do
Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs): created by states, membership by states. UN: collective security (Security Council veto), international law, humanitarian missions. WTO: trade rules, dispute resolution. NATO: collective defense. Limitations: no world government, enforcement depends on state compliance and great power consensus.
Globalization
Globalization: increased flows of goods, money, people, and ideas across borders. Winners and losers.
Globalization
The increasing interconnection of the world economy
Economic globalization: trade, foreign direct investment, global supply chains. Financial globalization: capital flows across borders instantly. Cultural globalization: spread of ideas, values, media. Winners: consumers (cheaper goods), skilled workers in emerging markets. Losers: low-skilled workers in developed countries competing with cheap labor.
Nuclear Deterrence
Nuclear deterrence: mutually assured destruction (MAD) — rational actors won't start a war they can't survive
Nuclear Deterrence
Why nuclear weapons paradoxically promote stability between great powers
MAD: if both sides have second-strike capability (can absorb a first strike and retaliate), nuclear war becomes irrational. Cold War: US and USSR never fought directly despite intense rivalry. Deterrence works when: adversary is rational, retaliatory capability is credible and survivable. Extended deterrence: umbrella covers allies.
Democratic Peace Theory
Democratic Peace Theory: democracies rarely go to war with each other — most robust finding in IR
Democratic Peace Theory
Why the spread of democracy may reduce international conflict
Empirical finding: liberal democracies almost never fight each other. Explanations: institutional (democracies need public support for war), normative (democracies resolve disputes peacefully because they share norms), commercial (democracies trade heavily with each other — war is costly). Not that democracies are peaceful in general.
Sovereignty vs Human Rights
Humanitarian intervention: can sovereignty be overridden to protect populations from their own governments?
Sovereignty vs Human Rights
The fundamental tension in post-Cold War international relations
Traditional: state sovereignty is absolute — other states cannot interfere in internal affairs. R2P (Responsibility to Protect, 2005): sovereignty includes responsibility to protect citizens. If state fails, international community has duty to intervene. Kosovo (1999), Libya (2011): invoked R2P. Syria: R2P not applied — Security Council vetoes.
Security Dilemma
Arms race: mutual fear drives both sides to build weapons — security dilemma creates the problem it tries to solve
Security Dilemma
How defensive measures can trigger conflict through mutual misunderstanding
Security dilemma: one state's defensive buildup looks offensive to others → they build up → first state feels less secure → builds more. Spiral model. Classic example: WWI — mobilization plans locked in war no one wanted. Solutions: arms control agreements, transparency measures, CBMs (confidence-building measures).