SCLEJ: Separation of powers, Checks, Legislature, Executive, Judiciary
Separation of Powers
Three branches, each checking the others — no one holds all power
Legislature makes laws, Executive enforces them, Judiciary interprets them. Each branch checks the others. The framers feared concentrated power after British rule.
S
Separation of powers
C
Checks and balances
L
Legislature — makes laws
E
Executive — enforces laws
J
Judiciary — interprets laws
Federalism
Federal = shared power: nation + states. Expressed / Reserved / Concurrent.
Federalism
Power divided between national and state governments
Expressed powers (federal only): coin money, declare war. Reserved powers (states only): education, marriage laws. Concurrent powers (both): taxing, law enforcement.
Expressed
Federal government only
Reserved
State governments only
Concurrent
Both federal and state
Democracy Types
Direct democracy = everyone votes. Representative = elect others to vote.
Democracy Types
Two models of democratic governance
Direct: citizens vote on every law (ancient Athens, ballot initiatives). Representative: citizens elect officials who vote on their behalf (US Congress, UK Parliament). Most modern democracies are representative.
Government Structure Spectrum
Unitary → Federal → Confederal: most centralized to most decentralized
Government Structure Spectrum
Three ways to distribute power between central and regional governments
Unitary: central government holds most power (UK, France). Federal: shared between national and regional (USA, Germany). Confederal: regional governments hold most power (EU, old Articles of Confederation).
Checks and Balances
Checks and balances: each branch can limit the others — prevents tyranny
Checks and Balances
How the three branches constrain each other
Congress passes laws, President signs or vetoes, Supreme Court can strike down. President nominates judges, Senate confirms. Congress can override vetoes (2/3 majority), impeach president and judges.
Parliamentary vs Presidential
Parliamentary vs Presidential: Parliament fuses executive and legislative. Presidential separates them.
Parliamentary vs Presidential
Two dominant models of democratic government
Presidential (USA, Mexico, Brazil): executive (president) separately elected, fixed terms, independent of legislature. Parliamentary (UK, Canada, Australia): executive (prime minister) drawn from legislature, survives only with legislative confidence. Parliamentary systems: faster policy-making but less stability.
Bicameral vs Unicameral
Bicameral legislature: two chambers (Senate + House). Unicameral: one chamber. Most democracies are bicameral.
Bicameral vs Unicameral
Why some countries have two legislative chambers and others have one
Bicameral: US (Senate + House), UK (Lords + Commons), Australia (Senate + House). Upper chamber often represents states/regions; lower chamber represents population. Unicameral: smaller countries — New Zealand, Denmark, Israel. Argument for bicameral: checks and balance within legislature.
Functions of Political Parties
Political parties: organize elections, form governments, connect citizens to government
Functions of Political Parties
What political parties actually do in a democracy
Recruit and nominate candidates. Organize electoral campaigns. Develop and promote policy platforms. Coordinate government action. Mobilize voters. Link citizens to government. In parliamentary systems: the majority party forms the government. In presidential systems: parties share power with the executive.
Civil Liberties vs Civil Rights
Civil liberties: freedoms FROM government (speech, religion). Civil rights: equal treatment BY government.
Civil Liberties vs Civil Rights
Two types of constitutional protections — often confused
Civil liberties: protections against government interference — 1st Amendment freedoms (speech, religion, press, assembly), 4th Amendment (unreasonable search), 5th Amendment (self-incrimination). Civil rights: positive rights to equal treatment — 14th Amendment equal protection, Voting Rights Act, Civil Rights Act.
Judicial Review
Judicial review: courts can strike down laws violating the constitution — not all democracies have it
Judicial Review
The power that makes courts equal partners in government
US: strong judicial review — Supreme Court can invalidate any federal or state law. UK: parliamentary sovereignty — courts cannot strike down Acts of Parliament. France: Constitutional Council reviews laws before enactment. Germany: Federal Constitutional Court similar to US model. Countermajoritarian: unelected judges override elected majorities.
Interest Groups
Interest groups: organized groups that lobby government to advance members' interests — not political parties
Interest Groups
How organized interests influence government beyond elections
Types: economic (business associations, labor unions), ideological (ACLU, NRA), public interest (Sierra Club), governmental (associations of mayors). Methods: direct lobbying, campaign contributions (PACs), grassroots mobilization, litigation, media campaigns. Revolving door: movement between government positions and lobbying jobs.
The Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy: implements laws, has expertise, provides continuity. Criticized for red tape and unaccountability.
The Bureaucracy
The permanent administrative apparatus of government
Executive branch agencies that implement legislation. Characteristics (Weber): hierarchy, specialization, written rules, merit-based hiring. Principal-agent problem: bureaucrats (agents) may pursue own interests rather than elected officials' (principals). Controls: legislative oversight, presidential appointments, budget power, judicial review.